BIOPAC Blog

2025: The Year in Review

As 2025 winds to a close, there is much to celebrate both here at BIOPAC and in the ever-expanding frontiers of research that our products engage with every day. Let’s take a quick look at where we have been over the past 12 months and what the future holds.

Popular Posts

Speaking of engagement, this is the time of year when we do a bit of self-assessment and revisit what topics our readers were most inspired by and most interested in. Apparently, many of our readers are closet gamers at heart, because our blog on research on game design and gaming impacts drove more eyes to our site than any other topic this year, followed by posts on cognitive neuroscience and aging and the human impact of isolation.

New Products and Updates

On the heels of the 2024 release of our flagship MP200 data acquisition and analysis system and a significant upgrade to AcqKnowledge software, 2025 concludes with another milestone: the imminent release of AcqKnowledge 6.0.2. This latest version features a host of improvements and additions, including full integration of MedelOpt+, which blends whole-head functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) with electroencephalography (EEG) in a single, highly flexible device.

BIOPAC in the Lab

Every year, BIOPAC products continue to drive the most exciting research in physiology, psychology, and neurology, and 2025 was no different. Each month, we highlight breakthrough studies in which BIOPAC played a role in gathering and analyzing key data. These are usually centered around a theme and feature research published in the last few years. To close out the year, we like to spotlight a couple of significant studies from 2025 that didn’t get mentioned.

A collaborative study by researchers from the University of Georgia and Beijing Normal University examined how mothers and children coordinate their physiological responses during stressful interactions. Using BIOPAC data acquisition systems coupled with wireless ECG transmitters, the team simultaneously recorded cardiac activity from each participant pair as they completed structured challenge tasks. This setup provided the temporal precision needed to track changes in heart rate and moment-to-moment autonomic synchrony, revealing how caregivers and children influence one another biologically during shared stress. The study found that greater synchrony was linked to both emotional dynamics and regulatory behaviors during the tasks, highlighting the deep coupling between social relationships and physiological responses. The wireless BIOPAC configuration enabled naturalistic interaction while capturing high-quality dyadic data, a persistent challenge in synchrony research.

In its first full year of availability, the MP200 is already making waves in the research community. At Guangdong University of Science and Technology in China, researchers examined how head-shoulder posture and cervical muscle activation differ between college students with chronic neck pain (CNP) and healthy individuals. The team employed surface electromyography (sEMG) recorded with a BIOPAC MP200 data acquisition system and AcqKnowledge software. Researchers placed surface electrodes over targeted neck muscles to record raw EMG signals during various strength tests and physical tasks. Students with CNP demonstrated significantly poorer head and shoulder alignment, reduced neck extensor strength, and altered EMG activity, indicating neuromuscular dysfunction associated with pain. Findings showed the connection between altered posture and impaired muscle function in chronic neck pain. The study demonstrates the effectiveness of surface EMG to support clinical diagnosis and rehabilitation.

For more inspiration as we head into 2026, explore our webinar library for tips, tricks, and methods directly from experts across a range of research fields.

If you are planning to launch a study for 2026, now is the time to reach out to your nearest BIOPAC customer service representative for help finding the right tools to get started.

Healing Hands: EDA and Affective Touch

“Nothing eases suffering like human touch.” — Bobby Fischer

The gentle caress of a mother to her child. A reassuring pat on the shoulder from a friend. The touch of another human is one of the first forms of communication we experience in life, preceding the development of spoken language. Touch can have a remarkable effect on our emotional, psychological, and physiological states. It shapes our relationships with others and helps us build social connections.

The positive effects of touch are primarily associated with affective touch, characterized by comforting, caress-like stroking that activates C-tactile afferent (CT-afferent) neurons in the skin of mammals (including humans). Affective touch has attracted the interest of researchers seeking to decode how the sympathetic nervous system confronts and manages a variety of challenges, including pain regulation, stress management, and social interactions. The subject has drawn attention in the study of neurodevelopmental disorders, such as Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD), where it is playing an essential role in understanding the sensory and social challenges facing individuals with atypical neurocognitive function.

While studies on touch, and affective touch specifically, utilize a range of physiological signals to gather data, electrodermal activity (EDA) has proven particularly useful in this area. Also referred to as Galvanic Skin Response (GSR), EDA provides a direct window into the sympathetic nervous system, which is responsible for emotional or affect-related arousal. When someone experiences pleasant or meaningful touch (e.g., a gentle stroke or supportive hand), the brain triggers subtle changes in sweat gland activity manifested as shifts in skin conductance. These changes occur when people aren’t fully aware of their emotional response. This makes EDA a sensitive, objective marker of how the body reacts to social and tactile experiences. In studies of affective touch, researchers track EDA to see whether a touch feels calming, engaging, or stressful, and how these responses differ across individuals or clinical groups such as autistic youth. Because EDA reflects genuine physiological arousal tied to emotional processing, it helps scientists understand the underlying autonomic mechanisms that shape how we experience social touch.

Researchers at the University of Tours in France examined how children with ASD respond to gentle, affective touch to determine whether they exhibit physiological patterns that differ from those of their neurotypical peers under the same conditions. The team measured multiple aspects of the autonomic nervous system, including EDA and electrocardiogram (ECG). These signals were collected using a BIOPAC MP36 data acquisition and analysis system to capture subtle changes in sympathetic arousal. Researchers collected EDA data using two 8 mm Ag/AgCl cup electrodes placed on the second phalanges of the index and middle fingers of the right hand. ECG was collected via two disposable vinyl electrodes placed on the sternum and on the right shoulder. The study found that autistic children exhibited atypical EDA responses, showing either blunted or inconsistent autonomic reactions relative to controls, even when their outward behavior appeared typical. These results suggest that affective touch may not regulate internal arousal in autistic children the same way it does in others, providing an essential insight for therapies and sensory-based interventions that rely on touch.

In a similar study, a team from the University of Turin in Italy explored how autistic adults process affective touch by comparing their subjective ratings of pleasantness with their physiological responses. The researchers used a BIOPAC data acquisition research system with an EDA amplifier module to record EDA. At the same time, participants received gentle, slow stroking intended to activate the brain’s affective touch pathways. The goal was to determine whether autistic adults show a mismatch between what they say they feel and how their bodies respond. The findings revealed an apparent dissociation. While autistic participants often rated the touch similarly to neurotypical participants, their EDA responses differed significantly, indicating altered sympathetic arousal. This physiological-subjective mismatch provides compelling evidence that affective touch is processed differently in ASD, which may help explain challenges with social touch and sensory integration in everyday interactions.

Researchers from the University of Liverpool and Manchester Metropolitan University examined how brief, naturalistic social touch alters brain activity, autonomic physiology, and emotion recognition performance. Although this multimodal study did not focus on an autism-only sample, it is relevant to social-touch research more broadly and provides methodological examples that apply to ASD studies. To capture changes in prefrontal cortex function, the team employed a BIOPAC fNIRS imager system, with signals sent to a data acquisition unit. Further analysis of fNIRS signals was handled via fNIRS visualization software. Both EDA and photoplethysmography (PPG) were recorded at 2 kHz, using shielded Ag/AgCl electrodes on the index and fourth fingers and a PPG sensor on the middle finger, and were acquired and analyzed in AcqKnowledge. The results showed that social touch increased prefrontal activation, modulated cardiac and vascular dynamics captured via PPG, and produced measurable changes in sympathetic arousal, as indexed by EDA. Participants also demonstrated improved emotion-recognition accuracy following touch. Together, these findings suggest that social touch engages coordinated central and peripheral systems in ways that may support social cognition and emotional understanding.

These are just a few examples of how EDA is being used in research into affective touch. For additional information on integrating EDA in your study, see our multiple webinars on the subject.

Are you designing a study into affective touch or just planning a research project that will focus on EDA? Our customer service staff can help you streamline the process to produce best possible data.

Brain and Body: SPA-fNIRS Solves Physiological Signal Noise

Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) offers researchers a powerful noninvasive tool for studying brain activity by measuring changes in blood oxygen levels. These changes reflect how various brain regions respond to stimuli such as tasks that involve thinking, emotion, movement, and social interaction. These are often in natural, real-world settings that are not possible with other brain imaging methods. However, fNIRS is not without its own limitations. Systemic fluctuations in the body, such as breathing patterns, cardiovascular changes, and autonomic responses, can result in signal noise that is misinterpreted as brain activity by traditional fNIRS. The solution: a visit to the SPA.

Systemic Physiology Augmented fNIRS (SPA-fNIRS) is an advanced approach to fNIRS that goes beyond measuring local changes in cerebral oxygenation. While standard fNIRS measures cortical hemodynamics by tracking oxygenated (HbO) and deoxygenated (HbR) hemoglobin, noise originating from systemic physiological changes can corrupt those signals. Combining data from both neural and systemic physiological signals, SPA-fNIRS provides researchers with a more diverse and accurate view of how the brain and body interact in real time.

The method is being applied across various fields, including psychophysiology, cognitive neuroscience, exercise physiology, mental health, and human performance research. Studies have utilized SPA-fNIRS to investigate a range of topics, including meditation and emotional regulation, movement control, and social interaction. The broader goal is to move beyond studying the brain in isolation and to understand it as part of an integrated mind-body system. This holistic view is transforming how scientists interpret brain-function data, opening new paths for applied research in education, rehabilitation, and human-machine interface design.

Researchers in India investigated the impact of a traditional sound-based meditation technique, known as the Mind-Sound Resonance Technique (MSRT), on both brain and heart activity. Using fNIRS to track changes in oxygen levels in the prefrontal cortex, and a BIOPAC data acquisition and analysis system with AcqKnowledge software to record and analyze heart rate variability (HRV), the study employed a SPA-fNIRS design, integrating neural and physiological data in a single, synchronized dataset. HRV analysis allowed the researchers to quantify shifts in autonomic balance during and after meditation. The results showed increased oxygenation in the right prefrontal cortex and enhanced low-frequency HRV components, reflecting greater parasympathetic regulation. Together, these findings suggest that sound-based meditation not only improves brain oxygenation but also promotes calmer, more balanced heart-brain dynamics, illustrating how SPA-fNIRS methods can reveal the comprehensive physiological impact of mindfulness practices.

In her doctoral research at the Université de Lille in France, neuroscientist Aurore Guérin examined how the brain controls movement speed using a multimodal combination of fNIRS and physiological data recording systems. Participants performed repetitive arm movements at fast, natural, and slow tempos. At the same time, the study captured oxygenation in the prefrontal and motor cortices using fNIRS, alongside heart rate and respiration signals collected with a BIOPAC data acquisition system. A respiratory effort transducer measured breathing patterns, while a BioNomadix ECG module recorded cardiac activity for HRV analysis. All physiological signals were synchronized and analyzed in AcqKnowledge software, allowing the team to identify and remove systemic influences (e.g., heartbeat and breathing rhythms) from the fNIRS signals, following a SPA-fNIRS approach. The results revealed that faster movements primarily engaged motor regions, while slower, more deliberate pacing resulted in higher prefrontal activation, reflecting greater cognitive control. By integrating physiological monitoring with fNIRS, the study provided a clearer picture of how the brain and body coordinate timing and control during movement.

These studies illustrate how SPA-fNIRS is reshaping the way scientists investigate the interaction between brain and body. By combining neural and physiological data in a single synchronized system, researchers can separate brain activity from systemic noise and uncover the interplay between cognition, emotion, and autonomic regulation. For more information on this topic, watch our webinar on Multimodal SPA-fNIRS and check our our latest multimoldal fNIRS research products.

Are you planning a study that blends fNIRS with other physiological signals? Contact your local BIOPAC customer service representative to learn more about how SPA-fNIRS can benefit your research.

Boom! Pow! Clang! Exploring Stress Resilience with Startle Response and PPI

We have all felt that electrical jolt that comes with hearing a sudden, unexpected loud noise—the clang of a dropped cooking pan, the blast of a car horn, or the pop of a balloon. The reaction is instantaneous and nearly uncontrollable as muscles tense, eyes blink, pupils dilate, and one’s heart seems to leap from the chest. The startle response—a rapid, automatic reaction to sudden stimuli like loud noises—has a practical purpose, helping protect us from outside threats. It can also pose a danger if the response occurs while engaging in precision activities, such as driving a vehicle or operating machinery.

Within the psychophysiological field, the startle response can reveal how our brains and bodies process stress, attention, and emotional regulation. In pursuit of ways to mitigate its detrimental effects, researchers often study this reflex alongside prepulse inhibition (PPI). In this latter process, a weaker sound presented just before the startling noise reduces the strength of the response. To capture data when studying these phenomena, scientists use physiological signals such as electromyography (EMG) to measure the tiny muscle contractions around the eye during a blink, electrocardiography (ECG) for heart rate changes, electrodermal activity (EDA) for skin conductance, and respiration to track stress responses. In addition, researchers often pair these physiological measures with brain imaging techniques, like functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) or electroencephalography (EEG), as well as cognitive tasks to build a complete picture of how startle responses connect with brain function and behavior.

Studies of startle response and PPI intersect with a wide range of fields, from neuroscience and psychiatry to aviation, defense, and occupational health. Clinical investigations of altered startle and PPI patterns are helping scientists uncover biomarkers of vulnerability or resilience. These studies are providing new insight into potential treatments for conditions like schizophrenia, PTSD, anxiety, and neurodegenerative disorders.

In applied contexts, like pilot training or high-stress professions, startle measures are used to understand how sudden stress impacts performance and decision-making. A study conducted by researchers at the University of Zagreb in Croatia with U.S. partners aimed to determine whether stress resilience markers, including startle response and PPI, could predict pilot performance under sudden startle events. Seventeen military pilot cadets completed baseline testing of physiological and cognitive features—including startle reflex habituation, PPI, heart rate variability (HRV), and multitasking ability—followed by flight simulator sessions with induced startle events. Physiological signals such as ECG, EMG (eye-blink startle reflex), respiration, and EDA were recorded via their respective BIOPAC amplifiers connected to a data acquisition and analysis system. Regression modeling showed that startle habituation, autonomic recovery, and cognitive task performance provided an accurate prediction of flight performance. The findings suggest that psychophysiological measures can help identify pilots who are more resistant to startle-induced performance degradation. Such insights could offer practical applications in pilot screening, training design, and aviation safety.

A team of Spanish researchers wanted to see how short-term (acute) stress affects both PPI and higher-level thinking (working memory) in healthy young adults. They used the Maastricht Acute Stress Test (MAST) to induce stress in one group, while another group did a non-stressful control task. After this, all participants heard loud noises that triggered the eye-blink startle response. In some trials, a prepulse immediately preceded the loud noise, which typically reduces the blink reflex. The startle (eye-blink) was measured from the orbicularis oculi muscle using BIOPAC Ag/AgCl electrodes connected to an Electromyography amplifier that fed data to a data acquisition system running AcqKnowledge software. This allowed the researchers to precisely record the intensity of a blink and the degree to which prepulse inhibited it. The team also tested working memory using tasks like digit span backwards and letter-number sequencing, in addition to other cognitive tests. They found that stress made startle responses stronger and reduced PPI, thereby degrading the participants’ ability to filter out the loud noise when it was preceded by a quieter one. Stress also impaired performance on working memory tasks compared to the non-stressed group. In practical terms, these results suggest that acute stress doesn’t just make one more reactive; it can interfere with basic sensory gating and cognitive control. This has implications for stressful jobs or situations (e.g., emergency responders or pilots) and possibly for understanding disorders where PPI or working memory is impaired.

These are just a few examples of how research into startle response and PPI can improve our understanding of the brain’s basic filtering and stress-response systems. The knowledge these studies provide may eventually translate into practical tools for diagnosis, prevention, and performance optimization. For additional information on research applications, check out our webinar on Startle and PPI.

Are you struggling to find the right tools to plan your startle response and PPI study? Our team of customer service experts will put you on the right path to gathering the best data possible for your research project.

Mind Over Matter: Cognitive Neuroscience and Aging

“Age is an issue of mind over matter. If you don’t mind, it doesn’t matter.” — Mark Twain.

While American author and humorist Mark Twain suggested that mental attitude could make aging less daunting, modern science shows that the changes our bodies and brains undergo over time are very real. Yet researchers are discovering that aging doesn’t have to mean inevitable cognitive decline. In fact, the growing field of cognitive neuroscience is revealing ways to track, understand, and even influence how our brains change with age, offering hope that we can preserve mental acuity, independence, and quality of life well into our later years.

When studying how aging affects the brain, cognitive neuroscience researchers use a variety of tools. In addition to standard behavioral tests like the Stroop test, n-back test, and verbal fluency exercises, which track reaction times, accuracy, and problem-solving strategies, they also rely on neuroimaging and physiological measurements to gather deeper insights. Neuroimaging techniques include electroencephalography (EEG), which monitors real-time electrical activity in the brain; functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS), which measures blood oxygen levels in specific cortical regions during cognitive tasks; and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), which provides detailed structural and functional maps of the brain.

Other physiological signals play an essential role in this field, including heart rate variability (HRV), a key indicator of the autonomic nervous system’s ability to balance various physiological functions and handle stress. Electrodermal activity (EDA) allows researchers to track arousal among participants undergoing cognitive exercises. Electromyography (EMG) measures muscle activation during fine and gross motor tasks. Eye tracking and electrooculography (EOG) provide researchers with data on how aging impacts attention and the ability to process visual cues. Respiration and blood pressure provide vital information on vascular health, which is often linked to cognitive performance.

Taiwanese researchers from National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University in Taipei turned to HRV and fNIRS to uncover how aging and, more specifically, mild cognitive impairment (MCI), affect both brain and heart responses during cognitive tasks. Healthy young adults, cognitively healthy older adults, and older adults with MCI were asked to perform cognitive function and executive tests. Researchers recorded the participants’ prefrontal cortex (PFC) activation through changes in oxyhemoglobin using fNIRS and autonomic responses via HRV. The team gathered ECG data using a BIOPAC data acquisition module running AcqKnowledge data acquisition and analysis software, and equipped with an ECG amplifier. The study found that older adults who did not exhibit MCI showed lower global and executive cognitive performance, reduced HRV, but increased prefrontal activation. The research team interpreted this to be the result of compensatory neural effort. However, older adults with MCI showed even greater cognitive decline, but no further differences in HRV or prefrontal activation. The findings suggest that HRV and PFC activation patterns could serve as biomarkers for distinguishing healthy aging from early pathological decline.

To better understand how learning processes develop and change with age, researchers from Tilburg University in the Netherlands investigated how younger adults and older adults differ in their brain and body responses while learning a visuomotor sequence task. To capture these responses, the team measured EEG, skin conductance (EDA), heart rate, HRV, breathing rate, and eye movements during the task. Physiological data were collected using BIOPAC’s BioNomadix wireless dual ECG/respiration amplifier and PPG/EDA amplifier, which continuously recorded three-lead ECG, respiration, and EDA at 2,000 Hz, with signals processed and analyzed in AcqKnowledge software. This setup allowed the researchers to precisely synchronize physiological activity with learning performance. Both younger and older adults improved with practice, but older adults needed more trials to reach the same precision. Brainwave activity showed apparent age differences, while measures like HRV, respiration, and skin conductance did not. This suggests that EEG is a more sensitive marker of age-related learning changes and could help guide training programs for older adults.

A long-term study by researchers from Radboud University Medical Center in the Netherlands, together with UK collaborators, tracked a group of healthy older adults over nearly 11 years to see how their brain blood-flow regulation changed by their 80s. Using transcranial Doppler ultrasound to measure blood velocity in the middle cerebral arteries, the team also monitored control signals including heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing gases. Physiological data were recorded with a BIOPAC data acquisition and analysis system, with end-tidal CO₂ (EtCO₂) measured using capnography via a BIOPAC carbon dioxide measurement amplifier. The researchers found a slight decline in CO₂ reactivity but, surprisingly, an improvement in dynamic cerebral autoregulation (the brain’s ability to maintain steady blood flow despite blood pressure changes). These effects were most apparent in participants who later reported memory complaints, suggesting that while aging may reduce vascular responsiveness, the autoregulatory system may help compensate for early cognitive challenges. The findings show how vascular health in the brain relates to aging and memory, providing valuable insight for detecting early risks of dementia and shaping preventive strategies.

These studies highlight how combining brain imaging with physiological measurements is helping scientists reveal the complex relationship between aging, cognition, and overall health. Through cognitive neuroscience, researchers are identifying early signs of decline and gaining a better understanding of how the brain and body adapt over time. Research is paving the way to more effective screening, personalized interventions, and lifestyle strategies that may help people maintain mental sharpness and independence well into older age. For more information on the tools and techniques being applied to cognitive neuroscience research, see our Webinars and visit our page on Cognitive State Analysis.

Are you planning a study on how aging affects the brain or just looking to expand your cognitive neuroscience toolbox? Our customer service team is ready to help you find what you need to obtain the best possible data.

Back to the Wild: Measuring the Effects of Human Interaction with Nature

“I think that I cannot preserve my health and spirits, unless I spend four hours a day at least—and it is commonly more than that—sauntering through the woods and over the hills and fields, absolutely free from all worldly engagements.” —Henry David Thoreau

In his 1861 essay “Walking,” transcendentalist writer and philosopher Henry David Thoreau extolled the virtues, both physical and mental, of communing with nature. While the psychological and physiological benefits of human connection with the natural environment are well established, modern science has taken a closer look at these interactions. Today’s researchers often rely on interdisciplinary approaches that blend psychology, physiology, neuroscience, and environmental science to investigate the mechanisms behind nature’s restorative effects on mind and body. With continued urban growth and shrinking access to wild rural spaces, as well as the digitization of our daily lives, this field has become more relevant than ever.

Researchers study human interactions with nature to better understand the tangible health and psychological benefits associated with exposure to natural environments, such as reduced stress, improved mood, and enhanced cognitive function. Theories such as the Biophilia Hypothesis and Attention Restoration Theory (ART) suggest that humans have a built-in affinity for nature, which can support mental and emotional well-being. Psychophysiological research seeks to uncover the processes underlying these effects and to compare how different environments—whether urban, natural, or virtual—impact our bodies and minds.

The study of human-nature interaction encompasses a wide range of practical applications, including healthcare and mental wellness. Beyond health applications, this field informs decisions and policies regarding urban planning and architecture, such as the design of biophilic buildings and green spaces in cities. Research also aims to help individuals focus their attention, enhance creativity, and promote emotional well-being in both work and educational settings.

A study published in the Journal of Environmental Psychology examined how immersion in nature and exposure to nature-related images affect attention and could be used in attention restoration therapy and related applications. Researchers measured participants’ neural activity before, during, and after a four-day group camping trip in Utah using electroencephalography (EEG) to capture reward positivity (RewP), a brain signal associated with reward processing. During these periods, researchers measured how participants responded to extrinsic rewards, including monetary incentives. To ensure data integrity and minimize motion artifacts in the outdoor setting, the team utilized BIOPAC’s wireless BioNomadix EEG system and verified electrode contact using the EL-CHECK impedance checker. The study’s findings showed a significant decrease in neural responsiveness to extrinsic (monetary) rewards following immersion in nature. This suggests that increased time spent immersed in natural environments may recalibrate the brain’s reward sensitivity and promote intrinsic motivation. These findings have implications for a variety of behaviors related to extrinsic stimuli, such as the treatment of addiction.

Not all research into human-nature interactions focuses on immersion in real-world environments. With the evolution of virtual reality (VR) technology, new research leverages artificial environments to elicit biophilic responses. A study by researchers at the Southwest Jiaotong University School of Architecture in China, published in Frontiers in Public Health, investigated how exposure to biophilic design elements affects stress recovery in older adults. A group of 25 participants over the age of 60 were exposed to stressors and then underwent sessions with randomized VR environments that included green walls and outdoor views. The researchers measured two key physiological signals: heart rate variability (HRV), which assesses parasympathetic activity, and skin conductance level (SCL), a marker of sympathetic arousal. Electrocardiogram (ECG) data were collected using a BIOPAC ECG amplifier, while electrodermal activity was gathered via an EDA amplifier. Both signals were recorded using a BIOPAC data acquisition and analysis system. Results found that participants exposed to environments with green features demonstrated significantly higher HRV and lower SCL, indicating enhanced autonomic recovery and reduced stress. These findings suggest that the biophilic benefits of nature exposure can be made available to individuals virtually when real-world immersion is not possible or available.

As these studies demonstrate, there exists a wide and varied frontier to explore how human interaction with nature shapes our physiological, neurological, and psychological well-being. For more information on the tools to assist with such research, visit our Webinars library for detailed video trainings on how to use these technologies in your nature-related study.

Whether your study participants are hitting the trail, climbing a mountain, or just relaxing in the garden, BIOPAC customer service reps are ready with the right solutions to take your next research project back to nature.

Game On: Applying Physiological Data in Video Game Design and Research

Ever since players first started feeding quarters into arcade games and began plugging in home systems in the late twentieth century, researchers have looked for practical tools for both shaping video game design and measuring their effects on players. Physiological signals filled this niche area of research. Researchers began investigating the connection between physiological science and gaming in the 1980s and 1990s, when early studies explored the effects of video games on heart rate and arousal. These first studies focused on issues such as aggression and overstimulation, but research has since expanded to encompass the cognitive and emotional aspects of gameplay. An early research project by NASA, for example, examined how biofeedback could be applied to game design to enhance traditional game control methods while also improving players’ cognitive abilities.

Today, physiological monitoring is not only a method for psychological inquiry but also a vital asset in improving user experience (UX) research, game accessibility, and even driving therapeutic game development. As wearable sensors and game engines grow more sophisticated, the integration of physiological signals into game design is opening new frontiers for immersive, responsive, and health-conscious gaming. By analyzing real-time bodily signals, such as heart rate (HR), electroencephalography (EEG), electromyography (EMG), electrodermal activity (EDA), respiration, photoplethysmography (PPG), and electrooculography (EOG), researchers and developers can gain a deeper understanding of how players emotionally and physically respond to game elements.

A study published in the International Journal of Human-Computer Studies investigated whether players’ self-reported preferences for first-person shooter (FPS) game dynamics match their emotional reactions during both gameplay and viewing. Researchers recruited 24 active gamers and divided them into two groups: those who enjoyed the fast-paced action of FPS games and those who didn’t. While participants played an FPS game and later watched a recording of it, the team measured electrodermal activity (EDA), heart rate, and facial muscle responses, specifically expressions associated with frowning (corrugator supercilii) and smiling (zygomaticus major), to capture emotional arousal and valence. Physiological signal data were recorded using BIOPAC EDA, PPG, and EMG amplifiers, which were connected to a data acquisition and analysis system running AcqKnowledge software. Although both groups reported more positive feelings and higher excitement after actively playing rather than watching, the data revealed a deeper story: players who disliked the game showed more substantial rises in arousal during play. Those who favored the dynamics, however, showed steadier emotional responses across both conditions. Muscle activity patterns also differed. Those who enjoyed FPS dynamics exhibited sharper increases in frowning-related muscle activity during play than watchers, indicating nuanced emotional engagement. Overall, the study found that what people say they prefer does reflect in their bodies’ emotional reactions. Still, those preferences also shape whether playing or spectating feels more intense, highlighting how combining self-reports with physiological signals can deepen an understanding of game design and player experience.

A team of researchers from Bournemouth University’s Centre for Digital Entertainment investigated how players’ bodies react during intense engagement, or flow, in virtual reality (VR) games. The goal was to capture objective physiological signals, such as heart rate and eye-blink patterns, alongside subjective self-reports to see how well a game’s design induced flow versus boredom or anxiety. The researchers had participants play a custom VR “tower defense” game while monitored with BIOPAC equipment, including a two-channel Biopac Student Lab (BSL) data acquisition system and physiological modules to record HRV via ECG, as well as EOG and EEG signals. The team then utilized clustering and machine-learning classifiers to decode flow states with high accuracy. The research team also successfully identified that high flow correlated with fewer blinks and longer blink intervals, indicating a state of deep concentration. The study not only demonstrates the value of combining physiological and self-report data but also shows how wearable sensors can inform design decisions in VR games by providing real-time feedback on player experience.

Beyond game design, a primary area of research focus has been on the long-term psychological, neurological, and physiological impact that games have on players. A study published in the Journal of Media Psychology explored how experiences with violent video games might reduce prosocial behavior, such as the motivation to help others, through physiological changes. Researchers recruited 155 Chinese college students who reported their exposure to violent games (in terms of violence, bloodiness, and duration) and completed simple self-reports measuring their willingness to help and the time they took to help others in controlled scenarios. Researchers used a BIOPAC data acquisition unit running AcqKnowledge software to record relevant physiological data. A three-lead ECG amplifier, respiration module, and respiration belt were used to record ECG and breathing signals across baseline, violent-film task, and during recovery periods. Researchers calculated the reduction in respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA), a marker of parasympathetic nervous system engagement. They found that higher levels of violent-game experience predicted less RSA reduction during stress, which in turn was linked to reduced prosocial behavior. The study’s findings suggest that playing violent video games may impair physiological readiness to respond in an empathetic manner to others, showing RSA reduction to be a key influence. The study’s findings demonstrate how physiological and psychophysiological signals provide a deeper understanding of the impacts of video games, while also guiding design decisions.

Physiological signals help researchers identify moments of excitement, stress, immersion, or frustration. Such insights are increasingly being used to refine gameplay mechanics, balance difficulty, and enhance player engagement through adaptive or personalized game experiences. They also reveal the short- and long-term effects gameplay has on both individuals and society. For more ideas on how to apply these signals in your research, visit our Webinars page for information on wearable devices, mobile data acquisition, and other helpful topics.

Are you planning a research project related to video games? Reach out to our customer service specialists to get all the help you need in mapping out and equipping your study team.

A System of Systems: Network Physiology Connects the Dots

In the field of physiology, it is tempting to see the human body as a collection of independent systems performing a range of functions—converting food to energy, protecting us from harm and disease, and helping us react to and interact with our environments, to name a few. It is easy to overlook that these systems often work together and are interconnected. The field of network physiology does just that—look at how these systems (nervous, cardiovascular, muscular, etc.) work together, seeing them as part of a dynamic network rather than a collection of independent parts.

The author of the article linked above, Boston University research professor of physics Plamen Ivanov, first coined the term “network physiology” in 2006. Through his work as director of the Keck Laboratory of Network Physiology, Ivanov and his team pioneered research in this new and rapidly growing field. The latest research methods, breakthroughs, and ideas in network physiology will take center stage this summer at the Fourth International Summer Institute on Network Physiology (ININP) hosted at the Lake Como School of Advanced Studies in Italy.

Researchers are exploring various ways to apply the concepts of network physiology, including how stress affects both the brain and the body. Medical researchers are looking into how to identify early warning signs of future health problems in how various physiological systems interact when developing treatments that address multiple bodily systems. While this may sound like the multimodal approach to physiology—collecting data simultaneously and synchronously from multiple systems—the two terms are not synonymous. Network physiology uses multimodal methods to collect data, but goes further by connecting the dots between the various systems.

A study by a team of researchers from the University of New York and the University of Houston demonstrated how combining data from different body systems can give a more complete picture of how the brain and body work together, specifically in response to music and mental effort. The study explored how different types of music—either calming or exciting—affect a person’s working memory (the ability to retain and use information for short periods) and overall brain and body arousal. During the experiment, participants completed memory tasks while listening to either calming or exciting music. Researchers collected detailed data from the body using a set of BIOPAC sensors and electrodes, including general-purpose electrodes for gathering electrocardiogram (ECG) signals, a respiratory effort transducer, a wireless skin temperature sensor, a wireless pulse transducer for photoplethysmogram (PPG) data, and electrodes to measure electrodermal activity (EDA), blood flow in the finger, and muscle activity in the shoulders. These multimodal signals were gathered using a BIOPAC data acquisition and analysis system. The data was collected at 2 kHz to capture even small changes in the body’s responses. The research team found that while the difficulty of the memory tasks didn’t significantly impact arousal levels, the type of music did. Exciting music helped participants feel more alert and even improved their performance on some tasks.

A 2024 South Korean study investigated how the autonomic nervous system (ANS) responds differently to social pain (such as emotional distress from losing a loved one) versus physical pain (like discomfort from a pressure cuff). Researchers used a BIOPAC 16-channel data acquisition and analysis system running AcqKnowledge software to collect a range of signals from 73 healthy young adult participants. The following signals were gathered synchronously using a variety of sensors and transducers: ECG electrodes placed on both wrists and the left ankle to monitor heart activity, EDA sensors attached to the index and middle fingers to assess skin conductance (indicating stress levels), PPG sensor on the thumb to measure blood volume changes, chest-wrapped sensor to track breathing patterns, and a temperature sensor on the ring finger to monitor peripheral temperature changes. Participants experienced social pain via a 60-second grief-themed film clip and physical pain through a blood pressure cuff inflated to 250 mmHg. Social pain increased heart rate and skin conductance, while lowering blood volume pulse, pulse transit time, breathing rate, and finger temperature, reflecting a mix of sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system activity. Physical pain, on the other hand, raised heart rate variability and skin conductance, reduced blood volume pulse and pulse transit time, but left finger temperature unchanged, suggesting activation of the body’s stress response system. These distinct patterns show how different types of pain trigger unique responses across interconnected body systems.

A multimodal approach was employed in a study by researchers from several institutions including the University of Southern California, University of California, Irvine, Rutgers University, Vanderbilt University, and Wayne State University School of Medicine to examine how daily heart rate variability (HRV) biofeedback training influences brain function, emotional regulation, and physiological responses in both younger and older adults. In the study, 193 participants were randomly assigned to either increase or decrease their heart rate oscillations through daily biofeedback sessions over five weeks. Before and after the intervention, participants underwent various assessments, including MRI scans, psychological evaluations, and sleep monitoring using wristband sensors. During the MRI sessions, physiological data such as blood pressure, pulse, respiration (using a BIOPAC MRI-safe respiration transducer and module), and end-tidal CO₂ were continuously recorded. During stress tasks, blood pressure and hemodynamic measurements were taken using a noninvasive blood pressure monitor and transferred to a BIOPAC data acquisition and analysis system. The study’s findings suggest that HRV biofeedback can positively impact both brain function and physiological health, highlighting the interconnected nature of bodily systems, a central concept in network physiology.

These are just a few examples of how network physiology is being applied in research today. For more information on the topic, including links to related webinars, citations, and events, see our Network Physiology applications page.

Are you planning to integrate a range of signals for your next network physiology study? Our customer service specialists can help identify the best equipment and strategies for the synchronous collection of high-quality multimodal data.

Mind-Body Connection: Biofeedback in Research

The connection between the mind and body has long intrigued scientists, driving research into how our thoughts, emotions, and mental states can influence physical health and well-being. Biofeedback has become a recognized approach for helping people manage stress, reduce pain, and even enhance cognitive and physical performance. Biofeedback involves using sensors and real-time data to monitor physiological functions that are typically automatic, such as heart rate, breathing, muscle tension, and skin conductance. With this information, individuals can learn to gain greater awareness and, in some cases, voluntarily control these bodily processes.

Common physiological signals used in biofeedback include electrodermal activity (EDA), which reflects sweat gland activity and emotional arousal; electroencephalogram (EEG), which measures electrical activity in the brain; electrocardiogram (ECG), which measures heart electrical activity; heart rate variability (HRV), an index of autonomic nervous system flexibility; and respiration rate, among others. These signals offer researchers a window into the body’s stress responses, regulatory mechanisms, and even aspects of cognition and emotional control.

To complement physiological monitoring, researchers are increasingly integrating tools like stimulus presentation systems, virtual reality (VR) environments, and eye tracking technology into biofeedback studies. These tools allow scientists to study how people react to controlled stimuli, immerse participants in realistic scenarios, and track where and how long someone focuses visually, all while collecting detailed data on their physiological responses. This combination of immersive experiences and real-time monitoring helps researchers investigate how the body responds to stress or cognitive challenges and whether individuals can be trained to influence those responses.

Swiss researchers at ETH Zurich investigated whether individuals could voluntarily control their arousal states using real-time feedback on their pupil size. Pupil size is a physiological marker closely linked to the brain’s arousal systems, particularly the locus coeruleus. Study participants employed mental strategies to adjust their pupil diameter, receiving visual feedback through a dynamically changing circle that reflected their pupil size. The participants’ cardiovascular data, including ECG and respiration, were recorded to provide insights into the physiological effects of pupil self-regulation. The research team employed a BIOPAC data acquisition and analysis system running AcqKnowledge software to record ECG data continuously at a sampling rate of 1,000 Hz. Additionally, a BIOPAC respiratory effort transducer was used to measure respiration, although these respiratory data were not reported in the publication. The study’s findings demonstrated that pupil-based biofeedback enabled participants to modulate not only their pupil size but also associated neural activity and cardiovascular responses, such as heart rate. The results suggest a non-invasive method for individuals to control their autonomic functions, with potential applications in managing stress and anxiety disorders.

Vagally mediated heart rate variability (vmHRV) refers to the natural changes in the time between heartbeats that are controlled by the vagus nerve, which is closely tied to how well a person can adapt to stress and regulate their body. Researchers from Université Paris Cité explored whether a brief session of vmHRV biofeedback could help people better control their memory, specifically whether it could help them tell the difference between real and false memories. In the study, 71 healthy young adults completed a VR memory task after receiving either vmHRV biofeedback or a simple breathing exercise. To track their physiological responses, the team used a BIOPAC data acquisition and analysis system and recorded heart activity via a three-lead ECG configured according to Einthoven’s triangle using Lead II. The results showed that this short biofeedback session had no immediate effect on memory accuracy or on vmHRV levels during the task. This suggests that a single session of HRV biofeedback may not be enough to influence memory-related brain functions, underlining the complex relationship between the body’s stress responses and cognitive control.

A study published in the Journal of Human Kinetics looked at whether just one 10-minute session of HRV biofeedback, using a special breathing technique called resonance frequency breathing, could affect the level of activity of certain nerve cells. Researchers measured this by looking at a reflex in the lower leg muscle (the soleus) called the Hoffman reflex (H-reflex). Twelve healthy men took part in both the HRV biofeedback session and a regular breathing session in a random order. To measure muscle activity, researchers used a BIOPAC surface electrode on the leg and a reference electrode on the hand. The signals were recorded with a BIOPAC data acquisition system and analyzed with AcqKnowledge software, which helped line up the timing of muscle activity with electrical stimulation. The results showed that HRV biofeedback lowered the strength of the reflex and a related ratio (Hmax/Mmax), suggesting the spinal nerve cells were less excitable. These findings point to the potential of short HRV biofeedback sessions to affect the nervous system in ways that could be useful for physical therapy or improving movement control.

To learn more about how to integrate biofeedback techniques into your next research project, check out BIOPAC’s webinar, Biofeedback: Theory, Techniques, and Tools for Research.

Are you planning a research project that will utilize biofeedback data? Our expert customer service representatives can help you find the right tools for all your biofeedback needs.

Aesthetically Pleasing: Exploring How the Brain Perceives the Arts

Beauty is in the eye of the beholder—a mostly subjective experience, so the saying implies. While we may share many common ideals about beauty and aesthetics, our reactions to art, music, and literature can diverge, converge, and overlap to a myriad of degrees. Neuroaesthetics explores how the brain perceives and responds to art, music, and other aesthetically evocative experiences. Combining neuroscience with psychology and the arts, researchers seek to understand why humans find certain images, sounds, or designs appealing and how these perceptions influence our emotions, cognition, and behavior. This interdisciplinary science has practical applications across a wide range of fields, including design, marketing, education, and mental health therapy, where understanding aesthetic experience can inform and enhance user engagement, learning, and emotional well-being.

Biometric signals provide insight into emotional and cognitive processing, allowing researchers to gain valuable data on how the brain creates and responds to aesthetically engaging stimuli. Commonly used techniques include electrodermal activity (EDA), which measures changes in skin conductance linked to emotional arousal; electroencephalography (EEG), which tracks brainwave patterns associated with attention and engagement; functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS), which monitors blood flow changes in the brain; and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), which provides high-resolution images of neural activity.

Additionally, the use of virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) is expanding in neuroaesthetics research, allowing scientists to create controlled, immersive environments that mimic real-world experiences. These technologies offer new ways to investigate how individuals engage with art and design in dynamic, interactive settings, pushing the boundaries of how we understand and harness aesthetic experiences.

Researchers in Shanghai, China, for example, investigated how different visual modes—2D and 3D VR—affect emotional arousal, demonstrating how immersive environments influence emotional experiences. The research team utilized EEG to monitor brain activity and EDA to measure skin conductance responses, both indicators of emotional arousal. EDA and EEG data were recorded while study participants wore VR headsets to view 2D and 3D environments. Data was collected and analyzed using a BIOPAC MP system with AcqKnowledge software. The findings revealed that 3D VR environments elicited more intense emotional stimulation than 2D settings, as evidenced by higher beta (21–30 Hz) EEG power and increased EDA responses. According to the published findings, results suggest that enhanced perception in 3D environments leads to greater emotional engagement, highlighting the potential of 3D VR in applications such as immersive therapy, virtual training, and interactive entertainment.

A team of German researchers recently examined the intersection of neurology, psychology, music, and literature. Their findings, published in the journal NeuroImage, explored how melodic features influence the neural processing of spoken poems and songs, examining the interplay between language and music. Researchers employed fMRI to investigate the neural mechanisms underlying the processing of musical and nonmusical verse. The fMRI data revealed that both spoken poems and songs activated bilateral temporal auditory areas of the brain. One aspect of the study was the measurement of participants’ emotional responses to the stimulus, i.e., whether they liked the song or poem to which they were listening while the fMRI scan was conducted. To gather this data, participants interacted with a BIOPAC differential pressure transducer connected to the participants’ right and left index fingers to record the degree to which they enjoyed the music. The researchers stated the findings suggest that melodic properties are central to the aesthetic experience of both speech and music.

A study published by Britain’s Royal Society looked at the connection between aesthetic appreciation and emotional states, specifically how exposure to art or music can shift feelings of anxiety to curiosity. To understand how the brain perceives beauty, the researchers used EDA to assess participants’ physiological arousal during exposure to aesthetically pleasing stimuli, such as music. EDA data was gathered using a BIOPAC EDA amplifier connected to a data acquisition and analysis system while participants were administered anxiety-inducing electrical tactile stimulation during music listening sessions. The study demonstrated that aesthetic appreciation can reduce anxiety and promote curiosity by analyzing the EDA data alongside self-reported measures. The research team concluded that their results “might have potential applications across different human activities such as learning and therapy. The idea that aesthetic appreciation might affect anxious states and that expecting aesthetic rewards can transform anxiety into arousal and curiosity plays a central role in some psychotherapeutic models of human change.”

These examples provide a rough outline of a bigger picture, illustrating the many ways researchers use physiological signals to better understand the human mind’s response to art, music, and literature. For more information on the tools BIOPAC provides to assist in neurological and physiological research, see our online training and webinars.

Are you planning a research project to investigate the intersection of aesthetics and neuroscience? Contact a BIOPAC representative in your area to identify the right resources and equipment for a successful study.